Table 3 Characteristics of included randomised controlled trials

Okuyan and Deveci (2020) [26]

RCT

Turkey

Mild cognitive impairment

MMSE and MoCA of < 25 points

74.21 (6.93)

74.21 (6.93)

42 (20/22)

2 × 35–40 min/week for 12 weeks

Not subjected to any physical practice

1) Risk of falling: TAT (gait and balance)

2) Physical activity: PASE

3) Fear of movement: TSK

4) Behaviours related to falls: FaB scale

Lam et al. (2012) [25]

Single-blind cluster RCT

China

Risk of cognitive decline

CDR of 0.5 or Neuropsychological criteria for amnestic-mild cognitive impairment

77.2 (6.3)

78.3 (6.6)

261(92/169)

At least 3 × 30 min/week for 12 months

Muscle-stretching and toning exercises

1) Primary outcome: progression to dementia measured by DSM-IV criteria; cognitive test scores of Cantonese version of the ADAS-Cog, DS, delay recall, CVFT, TMT, MMSE

2) Secondary outcomes: CSDD assessed depressive symptoms in persons with cognitive impairment; NPI was used to assess changes in neuropsychiatric symptoms; BBS assessed functional balance

Sungkarat et al. (2017) [27]

Single-blind RCT

Thailand

Amnestic multiple-domain MCI (a-MCI)

Petersen’s criteria for diagnosing amnestic a-MCI, had a score of ≥ 24 on MMSE and < 26 on MCA

68.3 (6.7)

67.5 (7.3)

66 (33/33)

3 × 50 min/week for 15 weeks

Educational material covering information related to cognitive impairment and fall prevention

1) Primary outcome: Episodic memory was measured by LM-delayed recall; Visuospatial ability was assessed using the Block Design Test; Executive function was assessed using DSF, DSB, and TMT Part B–A

2) Secondary outcome: PPA composite fall-risk and component scores; edge contrast sensitivity was assessed using the Melbourne Edge Test; Proprioception was assessed using a lower limb matching test; Knee extension strength of the dominant leg was measured using a spring gauge; Simple hand reaction time was measured in milliseconds; postural sway was assessed using a sway meter that measured displacement of the body

Sungkarat et al. (2018) [28]

Assessor-blinded, prospective interventional RCT

Thailand

Amnestic multiple-domain MCI (a-MCI)

Petersen’s criteria for diagnosing amnestic a-MCI, had a score of ≥ 24 on MMSE and < 26 on MCA

68.3 (6.7)

67.5 (7.3)

56 (29/27)

3 × 50 min/week for 6 months

Educational material covering information related to cognitive impairment and fall prevention

1) Primary outcome: Memory was assessed using LM delayed recall; Visuospatial ability was assessed using the Block Design Test; executive function was assessed using DSF, DSB, and TMT B minus A (B-A)

2) Secondary outcome: plasma BDNF, TNF-α, and IL-10 levels

Tsai et al. (2013) [29]

Cluster-randomized clinical trial

USA

Moderate, mild, or subtle cognitive impairment

MMSE score of 18–28

78.89 (6.91)

78.93 (8.30)

55 (28/27)

3 × 20–40 min/week for 20 weeks

Health education, culture-related activities, and other social activities (e.g. sharing travel experiences, hobbies, and collections)

1) WOMAC was used to measure subjective pain, physical functioning, and stiffness

2) A modified GUG test was used to measure the elder’s speed in getting up from an armchair, walking as fast as he or she could for 50 feet, returning to the chair, and sitting down

3) STS test was modified for our elderly participants by asking participants, with arms across the chest, to rise five times from a chair as fast as possible

4) Cognitive functioning was measured by the MMSE

Tsai et al. (2015) [30]

Cluster-randomized clinical trial

USA

Moderate, mild, or subtle cognitive impairment

MMSE score of 18–28

78.89 (6.91)

78.93 (8.30)

55 (28/27)

3 × 20–40 min/week for 20 weeks

Attention control education group (instructor-led educational activities)

1) VDS for measuring pain in elders with cognitive impairment

2) Observation of pain behaviour: participants engaged in a series of daily tasks (sitting, standing, walking, and reclining), using Keefe’s observational method for OA knee pain

3) Analgesic intake: examined changes in analgesic intake